1. Field
The subject matter disclosed herein relates to spherical electromagnetic pulses radiated through engineered arrays forming the foundation of quantized computer processes and apparatuses that utilize the integer properties inherent to said pulses and arrays.
2. Information
Continuum mechanics engineering models lose relevance as the ratio of surface area-to-volume in the system under consideration becomes exceedingly large. The prior art lacks sufficient engineering methods for controlling and constructing thermodynamic and heat transfer processes at the nanometer scale.
Today's commercial computing devices may utilize transistors with components on the nanometer and {acute over (Å)}ngström scale, and the transistors and the logic gates that comprise them use electric current and semiconductors. But electric current, when put through transistors in logic gates, necessarily generates heat, generates unevenly distributed heat, generates heat that is in the vicinity of insulating and non-optimal heat transfer materials, may generate stray current, have wires that increase in resistance and capacitance per unit length as they become smaller and consumes significant power to execute logic and arithmetic operations. These significant problems are increased at the smaller scale, despite the fact that the industry standard component feature size in computer hardware in the prior art has progressively gotten smaller.
Generating the same or more heat within smaller-and-smaller nano-scale volume sources by definition challenges the available surface area for the heat removal. Hot spots and generally excessive heat, has several draw backs, including injuring long-duration operation of said transistors.
Even though the problem of heat generation in electric current based logic gates originates at the nano- and micro-scale, the end effect at the macro scale is that large and multi-user devices, such as data centers, consume massive amounts of expensive and environmentally taxing power to conduct operations and computer cooling. According to a 2012 article in the MIT Technology Review [Apr. 30, 2012], all computer operations combined in the world account for about 2% of the world's CO2 emissions due to power consumption, which is almost as much as the Aviation Industry. While at the hand-held and still smaller scale, batteries are burdened by the processes conducted by embedded integrated circuits.
The computer hardware industry's quest to increase the number of gates on a chip is impeded by heat removal and power efficiency inherent to electron-based computation and made worse at the nanometer scale [Microprocesor Architecture, Jean-Loup Baer, 2010, Cambridge University Press, Computer Architecture, John Hennessy & David Patterson, Third Edition, 2003, Morgan Kaufman]. Ongoing development work for some decades has sought to decrease power requirement per computation or to provide cooling for ever smaller transistors.
3D stacked chips based on electric current offer an intriguing hope for increasing computing power per unit volume. However, the prior art for 3D stacked chips has significant gaps. For example, putting transistors, which generate heat, in a micro-scale or millimeter-scale multi-stack by definition decreases the surface area available for heat removal. Despite all the efficiency increases projected for 3D electric-current based chip stacks, they will always consume significant power per computation; therefore, burden batteries, limit embedded devices, and foreshorten the customer's experience. The all electric-current-based microprocessor paradigm may be close to running its course.
Heat dissipation in electric current based gates whether in 3D or 2D chips indicates that such electric current based processes are irreversible. Irreversibility can be a useful property, since a definite result is sought; however, irreversibility derived from high heat dissipation per computation is a high energy price in classical computers.
Additional difficulties with the electric-current based paradigm include the prime factorization of large numbers. Encryption and defeating public-key cryptography schemes such as RSA, utilizing prime factorization of a large integer on a classical irreversible electric-current based computer is said to be infeasible or consume impractical amount of computing time (more than polynomial with input size) [“Polynomial-Time Algorithms for Prime Factorization and Discrete Logarithms on a Quantum Computer”, Peter Shor, 1996 & 1994, The 35th Annual Symposium on the Foundations of Computer Science].
Containing information in quantum form and the ability to manipulate quantum information may enable tasks that would be unachievable in a classical electric current based computer, including, the unconditionally secure transmission of information.
Superconductor based [D-Wave type devices] may offer a high computation capability which perhaps (but not yet proven as of the time of writing this document) could address some of the benefits of quantum computing. Yet today's superconductors tend to operate at temperatures well below ambient, thus requiring refrigeration and insulation. Computers based-on cryogenic temperature range superconductors cannot, without additional technology breakthroughs, reasonably be placed in small embedded computing devices nor can they likely offer relief to computer data center power consumption.
The public domain literature describes aspects of optical computing, which is sometimes referred to photonic computing. Literature reference to optical computing usually does not include quantum computing. Optical logic gates, optical switches, optical interconnections, and optical memory have been fabricated, but hybrid electric current optical devices are most often discussed as realizable. The prior art for light-based computing lacks practical, petit apparatuses. Lasers are commonly considered the source of illumination, but light-emitting diodes are also considered frequently for increased tolerance to noise. However, reliance on these light sources utilizes significant power to operate, may require materials to be maintained at temperatures well below room temperature and they use well-developed plane waves, not taking advantage of the properties of newly initiated spherical radiating waves. In this regard, although the current work uses radiating pulses, the term optical computing is not applied to the current work.
The prior art lacks a low-to no heat dissipating computer; irreversible (without heat generation) computing processes; ultra low power consuming CPU/ALU for embedded high-throughput computations; fast prime factorization capable low cost computer; low power consuming data centers; methods for engineering energy transfers on the nanoscale; a method to increase gate density on a chip surpassing limitations from transistor heat generation; and practical optical computing devices.
Research is ongoing to improve microprocessors. Since the scale of integrated circuit unit operations have decreased, such as transistors in the low nanometer or even {acute over (Å)}ngström-level, applicable engineering laws at this level are underway, and essential for a breakthrough in microprocessors.
Various expositions have been written on the potential role of Integer thermodynamics at the very small scale [Donald Chakeres, Harmonic Quantum Integer Relationships of the Fundamental Particles and Bosons, Particle Physics Insights, February 2009]. Experimental results show the existence of what may be expected intuitively: at the very small scale thermodynamic interactions may be quantized.
Regarding the Quantum Hall Effect, the von Klitzing discovery shows quantized integer fractions for resistance magnitudes that step up and maintain for specific plateaus as magnetic field is increased.
The integer quantum Hall effect is a quantum version of the Hall Effect observed in low temperature and strong magnetic field where it is experimentally verified that the Hall conductivity has quantized values relating the channel current to the Hall voltage through the e (elemental charge), h Planck's constant and an integer or fractions of integers.
Thus the Hall conductivity or resistance can take on either integer or integer fractional values. As can be immediately clear, quantized fractional integer Hall conductance is uniquely precise, since it is the ratio of integers.
Experimental measurements of the Hall conductance display integer fractional multiples of e2/h to nearly 10−9 precision. Presumably, the theoretical quantized values are exact, and the experimental results are accurate to 1 part in a billion. A computer with this level of accuracy (exact or 10−9 accuracy) in mathematical manipulations would be beneficial particularly if that accuracy carried through in integer thermodynamic equations.
Roemer and Sohrmann report electron-electron interactions within the integer quantum Hall regime, where the presence of a strong magnetic field and two-dimensional confinement of the electronic system profoundly affects thermodynamic and transport properties. [Roemer, Rudolf A. and Sohrmann, C. (2008) Hartree-Fock interactions in the integer quantum Hall effect. Physica Status Solidi. B: Basic Research, Vol. 245 (No. 2). pp. 336-343]
Prime factorization using a quantum computer is a goal for a direction of new microprocessor research [Nature Physics Volume: 8, Pages: 719-723 August 2012); Computing Prime Factors with a Josephson Phase Quibit Quantum Processor, John Martinis, et. al.] And Integer research in physics has continued and growing interest.
There may be generally valid thermodynamic relationships that function at the quantum integer fraction level that are applicable to engineering systems at the very small scale. Moseley's law is another quantum property that may be an indication of the reach of said phenomenon. Indicating there may be quantized thermodynamic inter-relationships governing physical properties at the very small scale.
In the current work, the term “quantum” is used for several reasons which will become evident throughout this description of the apparatuses, methods and materials. Reported in the current document are findings in quantum integer thermodynamics and their application to engineering a radiating pulse-based quantum processor.